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History of French-era Tunisia
The History of French-era Tunisia commenced in 1881 with the French protectorate and ended in 1956 with Tunisian independence. The French presence in Tunisia came five decades after their occupation of neighboring Algeria. Both of these lands had been associated with the Ottoman Empire for three centuries, yet each had long since attained political autonomy. Before the French arrived, the Bey of Tunisia had begun a process of modern reforms, but financial difficulties mounted, resulting in debt. A commission of European creditors then took over the finances. After the French conquest of Tunisia the French government assumed Tunisia's international obligations. Major developments and improvements were undertaken by the French in several areas, including transport and infrastructure, industry, the financial system, public health, administration, and education. Although these developments were welcome, nonetheless French businesses and citizens were clearly being favored over Tunisians. Their ancient national sense was early expressed in speech and in print; political organization followed. The independence movement was already active before World War I, and continued to gain strength against mixed French opposition. Its ultimate aim was achieved in 1956.〔For geography and climate background, see History of Tunisia preview.〕〔For referral to authorities, see text following.〕
==Beylical reform, debt==
As the 19th century commenced, the Husaynid dynasty Bey remained the hereditary ruler the country. Since the early 18th century Tunisia had been effectively autonomous, although still 'officially' an Ottoman province. Commerce and trade with Europe increased dramatically following the Napoleonic wars. Western merchants especially Italians arrived to establish businesses in the major cities. Italian farmers, tradesmen, and laborers also immigrated to Tunisia. With the rapid surge in contacts with Europe, foreign influence grew.〔In general, see History of Ottoman era Tunisia at the section "Era of modern reforms".〕
During the rule of Ahmad Bey (r.1837-1855) extensive modern reforms were initiated. Later, in 1861 Tunisia promulgated the first constitution in the Arab world. Yet the Tunisian drive toward modernizing the state and the economy met resistance. Reformers became frustrated by comfort-seeking insiders, political disorganization, regional discontent, and rural poverty. An 1864 revolt in the ''Sahil'' region was brutally put down. Later, after ineffective measures had failed, the leading reformer Khair al-Din (Khaïreddine) became chief minister 1873–1877, but he too eventually met defeat by wily conservative politicians.〔Kenneth J. Perkins, ''A History of Modern Tunisia'' (University of Cambridge 2004) at 10–36; Ahmad Bey at 12–17, Khaïreddine at 30–36, revolt at 29, 31.〕
European banks advanced funds to the Beylical government for modernizing projects, such as civil improvements, the military, public works, and development projects, but also they included money for the personal use of the Bey. The loans were frequently negotiated at unfavorable rates and terms. Repayment of this foreign debt eventually grew increasingly difficult to manage. In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt. A ''Commission Financière Internationale'' was thereafter formed, whose representatives were led by France, and included Italy and Britain. This commission then took control over the Tunisian economy.〔A. Guellouz, A. Masmoudi, M. Smida, A. Saadaoui, ''Histoire Générale de la Tunisie, Tome III. Les Temps Modernes (941–1247 A.H./1534-1881)'' (Tunis: Sud Editions 2010) at 409–411.〕〔Perkins, ''A History of Modern Tunisia (2004) at 31-32.〕〔Lisa Anderson, ''The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980'' (Princeton Univ. 1986) at 70 (bankruptcy), 85-86 (commission), 96-97, 98-104 (Bey's economic policy).〕
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